> ## Content Index > Fetch the complete content index at: https://www.upscprep.com/llms.txt > Use this file to discover other available public pages before exploring further. # Nuclear Waste - URL: https://www.upscprep.com/nuclear-waste-management-upsc-current-affairs/ - Published: 2024-03-26T13:33:02.000Z - Updated: 2024-03-27T06:31:12.000Z - Description: GS3 - Infrastructure | Science & Technology - Author: UPSCprep.com - Tags: Current Affairs, #show-toc, UPSC Prelims ## Why in the News? - Recently, India loaded the core of its long-delayed prototype fast breeder reactor (PFBR) vessel, bringing it to the cusp of stage II — powered by uranium and plutonium — of its three-stage nuclear programme. - By stage III, **India hopes to be able to use its vast reserves of Thorium to produce nuclear power** and gain some energy independence. ![India's Three Stage Nuclear Program | UPSC](https://lh6.ggpht.com/-4zC2TLsiNG0/UL9_ZTkJscI/AAAAAAAAHFI/XlfOpj69fu0/India-3-Stage-Nuclear-Power-Generati%25255B1%25255D.jpg?imgmax=800) - But the large-scale use of nuclear power is accompanied by a difficult problem: waste management. ## What is Nuclear Waste? - Radioactive waste is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material and its byproducts. - Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including: - Nuclear medicine - Nuclear research - Nuclear power generation - Spent fuel rods - Nuclear decommissioning and dismantling - Rare-earth mining - Nuclear weapons reprocessing ### Generation of Radioactive byproducts - They are generated as a result of nuclear fission. - In a fission reactor, neutrons bombard the nuclei of atoms of certain elements. When one such nucleus absorbs a neutron. - It destabilises and breaks up, yielding some energy and the nuclei of different elements. - **For example**, when the *Uranium-235 (U-235)* nucleus absorbs a neutron, it can fission to *barium-144, krypton-89*, and *three neutrons*. ![How is Nuclear waste generated? | UPSC](https://nuclear.mcmaster.ca/app/uploads/2019/03/uraninum-fission.jpg) ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/92/07/9207d054-5e99-4b26-b8c8-424994497a07/content/images/2024/03/image-63.png) - If the ‘debris’ (*barium-144* and *krypton-89*) constitute elements that can’t undergo fission, they become **nuclear waste**. ### Spent fuel rods - Fuel loaded into a nuclear reactor will become irradiated and eventually have to be unloaded. - At this stage, it is called **spent fuel**. - **Spent fuel rods** after energy production contains radioactive isotopes. Examples of **Nuclear Waste** - *Argon 41* - *Radioiodine* - *Cobalt-60* - *Strontium-90* - *Tritium* - *Caesium-137* Nuclear waste is highly radioactive and needs to be stored in facilities reinforced to prevent leakage into and/or contamination of the local environment. ## What are the types of Nuclear Waste? ![Types of Nuclear Waste | UPSC](https://storage.ghost.io/c/92/07/9207d054-5e99-4b26-b8c8-424994497a07/content/images/2024/03/image-59.png) ### High-level waste (most dangerous) - Spent fuel rods, liquids from reprocessing fuel. - Needs isolated storage for thousands of years. - It is primarily **uranium fuel** that has been used in a nuclear power reactor and is “spent,” or no longer efficient in producing electricity. - This includes radioactive isotopes of **lighter elements** such as **cesium-137** and **strontium-90**. These isotopes, called “**fission products**,”. ### Intermediate-level waste - Filters, cladding from fuel rods, reactor components. - Requires careful management. ### Low-level waste (least dangerous) - It includes items that have become **contaminated** with radioactive material. - **Examples**: Protective clothing, tools with low radiation contamination, shoe covers, wiping rags, filters, etc. - These are disposable in shallow burial sites. --- **We can't clear UPSC for you.** But with our ***personalised mentor support***, you'll be ready to do it yourself. [Join Now](https://courses.upscprep.com/products?ref=upscprep.com) --- ## What happens to the Nuclear Waste? - Spent fuel rods are still highly radioactive and hot due to residual decay heat. - They are **initially stored in water pools** inside the reactor facility for several years to allow them to cool down. - After cooling, they are transferred to **dry cask storage on-site**. - These casks are heavily shielded containers designed to safely store spent fuel rods for decades. ## How can Nuclear Waste be disposed of? ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/92/07/9207d054-5e99-4b26-b8c8-424994497a07/content/images/2024/03/image-62.png) ![Existing radioactive waste disposal and proposed alternatives for storage | GRID-Arendal](https://live.staticflickr.com/483/32323591656_47e1b7ba11_b.jpg) ### Shallow Burial - Low-level waste, with minimal radioactivity, is disposed of in specially designed shallow burial sites with liners to prevent contamination of soil and groundwater. - These sites are constantly monitored. ### On-Site Storage - Intermediate-level waste is typically stored on-site at nuclear facilities in shielded containers. - Concrete casks or vaults are common storage solutions. ### Geological Disposal - This is a potential long-term solution for high-level waste disposal. - The waste is encapsulated in special containers and buried deep underground in stable geological formations like granite or clay. - But, - Studies have pointed to the risk of radioactive material becoming exposed to humans if the containers are disturbed, such as by nearby digging activity. ### Vitrification - For high-level waste storage, vitrification is a process where the waste is converted into a glass-like substance for improved stability and containment. ### Reprocessing - It is the technology that separate fissile from non-fissile material in spent fuel. - It presents the advantage of higher fuel efficiency. - Some countries reprocess spent nuclear fuel to extract reusable fissile material like plutonium. *(Like India)* - But, - Because spent fuel is so hazardous, the reprocessing process is complex, and expensive, and creates additional waste streams needing disposal. ### Transmutation - This theoretical approach involves using advanced reactors to convert long-lived radioactive isotopes in waste into shorter-lived or stable isotopes, reducing their radioactivity. - Transmutation technology is still under development. ## What are the challenges of Nuclear Waste Management? - **Safe Storage:** Finding a secure location for long-term (thousands of years) isolation. - Spent fuel rods remain radioactive for thousands of years, posing a long-term waste management challenge. - **Transportation & Storage Technologies:** Safe methods to move and store waste are crucial. - Safe and secure storage of these rods is crucial to prevent radiation leaks and environmental contamination. - **Accident Risks:** Contamination of water resources from leaks or accidents during storage/transport. - **Unknown unknowns:** Uncertainties about long-term behavior of waste storage sites and reprocessing effectiveness. - **Ethical Concerns:** Equity in waste storage (environmental justice) and burden sharing between generations. - **Cost factor:** Waste management adds significantly to the cost of nuclear power generation. ## What is the India's Scenario? - According to a [2015 report](https://fissilematerials.org/library/rr14.pdf?ref=upscprep.com) from the International Panel on Fissile Materials (IPFM), India has reprocessing plants in **Trombay**, **Tarapur**, and **Kalpakkam**. ![India's Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing Plants | UPSC ](https://storage.ghost.io/c/92/07/9207d054-5e99-4b26-b8c8-424994497a07/content/images/2024/03/image-65.png) - The **Trombay** facility reprocesses 50 tonnes of heavy metal per year (tHM/y) as spent fuel from two research reactors. - It produces plutonium for stage II reactors as well as nuclear weapons. - Of the two in **Tarapur** - One used to reprocess 100 tHM/y of fuel from some pressurised heavy water reactors (stage I). - The other, commissioned in 2011, has a capacity of 100 tHM/y. - The third facility in **Kalpakkam** processes 100 tHM/y. - India has adopted the **Closed Fuel Cycle** option. ![Closed Fuel Cycle | India | Nuclear Reactor | UPSC](https://storage.ghost.io/c/92/07/9207d054-5e99-4b26-b8c8-424994497a07/content/images/2024/03/image-64.png) - It involves **reprocessing** and **recycling** of the spent fuel. - **Reprocessing** **plants** extract plutonium for further use (stage II reactors and potentially weapons). - During reprocessing, only about **2-3%** of the spent fuel becomes waste. - This waste is called **high level waste** (HLW). - It is converted into **glass** through **vitrification**. - The vitrified waste is stored in a **Solid Storage Surveillance Facility** for **30-40 years** before**the** its disposal. - The need for a final disposal facility will arise only after three to four decades. - **On-site storage facilities** for low and intermediate waste with environmental monitoring. --- ***Also, delays in the Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) program raise concerns about reprocessing plant efficiency. Why?*** - According to the IPFM report - The PFBR’s delays suggested the Tarapur and Kalpakkam facilities must have operated quite poorly, with a combined average capacity factor of around 15%. - If and when the PFBR starts functioning and spent fuel from it is discharged – it will bring its own complications. - Because it will have a different distribution of fission products and transuranic elements. ## Sign up for UPSCprep.com Simplify your UPSC journey Subscribe Email sent! Check your inbox to complete your signup. No spam. Unsubscribe anytime.