Topic: Modern Indian History
Q1. Nehru called the Government of India Act, 1935 as "a machine with strong brakes but no engine". Still, Government of India Act, 1935 lays the foundation for the Indian constitution. Discuss. (10 Marks)
Model Structure
Introduction :
- The Government of India Act 1935 was an important act in the history of India. As a result of Simon commission and result of various previous acts, the 1935 act was laid .
Main Body:
It laid foundation to Indian Constitution in following ways:
- It provided for the establishment of an All India federation consisting of provinces and princely states as units. Thus, resulting in today’s Union of India .
- It divided the powers between the centre and units in terms of three lists- Federal list, provincial list and the concurrent list. Residuary powers were given to the Viceroy. Today, the residuary powers lay with the centre. But the 3 lists continue.
- It abolished dyarchy in the provinces and introduced ‘provincial autonomy’ in its place. The states today are autonomous under federal structure.
- The act introduced responsible government in provinces, that is, the governor was required to act with the advice of ministers responsible to the provincial legislature. The responsible government continued with parliamentary form of government and no confidence motion.
- Bicameralism was introduced in six provinces- Bengal, Bombay Madras, Bihar, Assam and the United Provinces. Which continues at centre and few states.
- Council of India which was established as per the 1858 act was abolished .The secretary of state was instead provided with a team of advisors.
- The act provided for setting up the Federal Public Service Commission, Provincial Public Service Commission, Joint Public Service Commission, Reserve Bank of India. Which are constitutional and statutory bodies today.
- Setting up of a Federal court:
- A Federal court was also envisaged to be set up under this act so the provisions of the act could be interpreted in case of any disputes.
- The supreme court of India , today functions as the federal court.
However, some of its provisions which did not continue in new constitution of independent India:
- It provided for the adoption of a dyarchy at the centre. But, this provision did not come into effect at all.
- Separate electorates were further extended to depressed classes, women and labour.
- Preamble, Fundamental rights etc. were introduced later
Conclusion:
- The powers of the Legislature were confined and restricted. The Act protected British vested interests, discouraging the emergence of national unity, rather encouraging separation and communalism. All nationalists, including Nehru and Jinnah, condemned the Act.
Q2. Though Mr Ambedkar and Gandhiji had apparent differences as evident in events prior to Poona pact and other issues, they had a lot of ideological similarities also. Discuss. (15 marks)
Model Structure
Introduction
- Gandhiji was the architect of the freedom struggle and B.R Ambedkar was the architect of the Indian constitution and bth were one of the tallest leaders of pre independent India.
Main Body
Though they had differing views when it came to social construct and varna system, they held a lot of similarities also when it came to means to achieve particular ends. They include-
- Use of force and compulsion for social reforms and integration was negated by both and they both called for proper education to usher in reforms.
- They both believed in freedom of religion and made it as an agent of social change.
- They both contemplated that sovereign power of state must be limited and more power must be given to the people to decide for their own betterment.
- To reform and reconstruct Hinduism, Mr Ambedkar wanted to cast away evil practices, just like Gandhiji. Though he later believed that Hinduism is an entity which can’t be reformed.
- The idea of social transformation through democratic means got support from both.
- Use of symbolism by both had similarities, like foreign cloth for Gandhiji and Manusmriti for Mr Ambedkar showed bondage and they both sought to remove it by publicly burning them.
- Similarly, a pinch of salt during the Dandi march and a drop of water from Mahad tank were symbols of social philosophy which were aimed at bringing a sea change.
But despite these similarities, there were few differences also which brought both at loggerheads, like-
- Mr Ambedkar advocated parliamentary democracy for India but Gandhiji said that democracy turns into majority rule with all control in hands of few leaders.
- Due to social stratification, Ambedkar always talked of disunity prevalent in society but Gandhiji tried to show unity aspect like in his articles of ‘Hind Swaraj’.
- Mr Ambedkar had some principles which were very rigid but Gandhiji was flexible when it came to ideologies and principles.
- Gandhiji emphasized ‘Gramraj and Ramraj’ as panacea for all issues but Mr Ambedkar stressed the status quoist villages which denied fraternity and equality to downtrodden in perpetuity.
- While Gandhiji was in favour of no mechanization, Mr Ambedkar called for advancements in fields by mechanization.
Though Gandhi ji and BR Ambedkar differed in many viewpoints, their contribution to freedom struggle and nation building must not be lost in this debate. Their ideals still thrive today and are indispensable for character building.
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Q3. Though various factors were responsible for partition of the country, prominent ones include Jinnah’s ambitions and British amorality. Discuss (10 Marks)
Model Structure
Introduction:
- Partition of British India which took place in 1947 has been the worst episode in the Indian subcontinent’s history. This was not an abrupt incident but has many underlying causes.
Main Body:
Factors responsible for partition:
Jinnah’s ambitions:
- In 1940, the League under Jinnah demanded autonomy for Muslim majority areas of the subcontinent.
- During the Cabinet Mission, Jinnah was adamant that Congress could not nominate a Muslim representative.
- In 1946 provincial assembly elections, Jinnah sought a referendum on Pakistan.
- ‘Direct Action Day’ by Jinnah in 1946 led to riots in several parts of India lasting several days.
British amorality:
- British policies of divide and rule deepened animosities between Hindus and Muslims.
- Introduction of communal electorate in 1909.
- The British during WWII offered future political safeguards to the League in exchange for its cooperation.
- August Offer (1940) gave the League veto assurance.
- Cripps Mission (1942) provided a right to opt out of future Union.
- The British postponed the Punjab boundary award until the days of partition.
- When riots broke out during partition, deployment of troops was delayed.
Other factors responsible for partition -
- Partition of Bengal.
- Formation of Muslim League.
- Communal electorate introduced in The Government of India Act, 1909 etc.
Conclusion:
- Thus, though various factors played a role in the partition of the country. Prominent among them include the short sightedness of Congress and ambitions of Jinnah along with amorality of the British.
Q4. "Rabindranath Tagore's emphasis on education was a departure from the conventional system of education". Comment. (10 Marks)
Model Structure
Introduction
- Rabindranath Tagore was primarily an educationist. He put emphasis on 'naturalism' for framing educational models. The experience of his school days in Calcutta shaped Tagore’s ideas of education.
Main body
- Unity of West and East:
- Tagore’s education marked a novel blending of the ideas of the East and West. The spiritualism of Indian philosophy and the progressive outlook of the western people.
- Freedom to the learner:
- Tagore had championed the cause of freedom. With that object he had opened Shantiniketan, Sri Niketan and Brahmachari Ashram. Accordingly, he gave free choice to students to develop their interest in any field they like. To him, education should be after the heart of a man.
- Natural growth in natural circumstance:
- Tagore envisaged that nature is the best teacher to the pupil. Nature will provide the student with the necessary situations to earn knowledge.
- Goodbye to book-centred education:
- For the first time in the arena of education, he rejected a book-centred education for students. To him, it is not just to confine the minds of boys and girls to textbooks only. It will kill the natural instincts of a student and make him bookish. It will kill his creative skill.
- Teaching – practical and real:
- According to Tagore, teaching should be practical and real but not artificial and theoretical. As a naturalist out and out, Tagore laid emphasis on the practicality of education.
- Place of fine arts (dance, drama, music, poetry etc.:
- Tagore attached great importance to the fine arts in his educational curriculum. To him, games, dance, music, drama, painting etc. should form a part of the educational process. Students should take an active part in these finer aspects of human life for these are very essential to enrich the soul.
Conclusion:
- The establishment of Shantiniketan fulfilled the desired goal of Tagore on the educational front, whose principles can be imbibed in our modern learning environment. As Tagore stated “The highest education is that which does not merely give us information but makes our life in harmony with all existence.”
Q5. The people of India demanded a responsible government in the country, but “benevolent despotism” was introduced by Morley Minto Reforms. Critically comment. (10 Marks)
Model Structure
Introduction:
- The Morley-Minto reforms named after the Secretary of State Lord John Morley and the Viceroy Lord Minto was the alternative name given to Indian Councils Act, 1909. It was introduced to accommodate the demands of moderates in the Indian National Congress and to increase the participation of Indians in the governance.
Main body:
- The main features of the act are:
- It introduced a system of ‘separate electorate’ thereby accepting communal representation for Muslims. Lord Minto came to be known as the Father of the Communal Electorate.
- It considerably increased the size of the legislative councils, both Central and provincial.
- The British retained the official majority in the Central Legislative Council but allowed the provincial legislative councils to have a non-official majority.
- The elected members were to be indirectly elected. The local bodies were to elect an electoral college, which in turn would elect members of provincial legislatures, who in turn would elect members of the central legislature.
- It enlarged the deliberative functions of the legislative councils at both levels. Ex: members were allowed to ask supplementary questions, move resolutions on the budget, and so on.
- It provided for the first time for the association of Indians with the executive Councils of the Viceroy and Governors. Ex: Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
- It brought some reforms:
- It for the first time allowed the election of Indians to the various legislative councils in India .
- The introduction of the electoral system laid the groundwork for a parliamentary system.
- It gave some avenues to Indians to vent their grievances. Ex: Gokhale criticized education policies.
- Still, its intention was to weaken Indian national struggle:
- Lord Morley made it clear that colonial self-government (as demanded by the Congress) was not suitable for India, and he was against the introduction of parliamentary or responsible government in India.
- Divide and rule: dividing the nationalist ranks by confusing the Moderates and at checking the growth of unity among Indians through the instrument of separate electorates.
- The officials and the Muslim leaders often talked of the entire community when they talked of the separate electorates, but in reality, it meant the appeasement of a small section of the Muslim elite only.
- Besides, the system of election was too indirect and it gave the impression of infiltration of legislators through a number of sieves.
- And, while parliamentary forms were introduced, no responsibility was conceded.
- Only some members like Gokhale put to constructive use the opportunity to debate in the councils by demanding universal primary education, attacking repressive policies and drawing attention to the plight of indentured labour and Indian workers in South Africa.
- The position of the Governor-General remained unchanged and his veto power remained undiluted.
- The reforms of 1909 gave the people of the country a shadow rather than substance.
Conclusion:
- Thus Indian Council Act of 1909 was introduced to pacify the moderates and appease the Muslims to withdraw from the National freedom struggle Movement. The people had demanded self-government but what they were given was ‘benevolent despotism’.
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